Anatomy of Educational Innovations Based on Learning by Discovery in Higher Education
- Pablo Ruisoto 1
- Israel Contador 2
- Esperanza Quintero 3
- Juan Carlos López-García 3
- Beatriz Álvarez-Díaz 4
- Raúl Cacho 1
- Bernardino Fernández-Calvo 5
-
1
Universidad Pública de Navarra
info
-
2
Universidad de Salamanca
info
-
3
Universidad de Sevilla
info
-
4
Universidad de Oviedo
info
-
5
Universidad de Córdoba
info
ISSN: 0214-7823, 1886-1415
Year of publication: 2024
Issue Title: LA PSICOLOGÍA FORENSE EN ESPAÑA
Volume: 45
Issue: 3
Pages: 155-163
Type: Article
More publications in: Papeles del psicólogo
Abstract
El objetivo de este trabajo es examinar las innovaciones docentes derivadas del Plan Bolonia, centrando la atención en el aprendizaje basado en problemas y la gamificación, que resaltan la importancia del aprendizaje por descubrimiento o autónomo. Se analizan metaanálisis y artículos prominentes en “Education” and “Educational Research” de los últimos 5 años. Utilizando un símil biomédico, se identifican los principios activos de las innovaciones basadas en aprendizaje por descubrimiento, destacando la subordinación de contenidos teóricos a competencias prácticas y la ruptura del binomio docente-estudiante. Se señalan efectos adversos como la devaluación de clases magistrales, desacreditación de la autoridad docente y la infantilización de estudiantes. Diferentes estudios indican que la eficacia del aprendizaje por descubrimiento en la educación superior es débil e inconsistente. Por tanto, se aboga por la prudencia en su implementación y la preservación de la función social universitaria para transmitir conocimiento a niveles superiores
Bibliographic References
- Abad-Ramón, M. (2021). Así son los ‘riders’ de la educación, profesores precarios en condiciones laborales abusivas [Thus are the 'riders' of education, precarious teachers in abusive working conditions]. El País. Retrieved from https://bit.ly/3H24C19
- Aguadé, X. M. (2021). El fin de la educación [The end of education]. Ediciones Akal.
- Aksayli, N. D., Sala, G. & Gobet, F. (2019). The cognitive and academic benefits of Cogmed: A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review, 27(1), 229-243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2019.04.003
- Alfieri, L., Brooks, P. J., Aldrich, N. J. & Tenenbaum, H. R. (2011). Does discovery-based instruction enhance learning? Journal of Educational Psychology, 103(1), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021017
- Alten, D. C. van, Phielix, C., Janssen, J. & Kester, L. (2019). Effects of flipping the classroom on learning outcomes and satisfaction: A metaanalysis. Educational Research Review, 28, 100281. https://doi. org/10.1016/J.EDUREV.2019.05.003
- Amat, O. (2009). Enseñar a enseñar [Teaching how to teach]. Profit. ANECA (2019). Principios y orientaciones para la aplicación de los criterios de evaluación [Principles and guidelines for the application of the evaluation criteria]. https://bit.ly/3gVoetj
- Anger, L. M. & Alexander, P. A. (2017). Reading on paper and digitally: what the past decades of empirical research reveal. Review of Educational Research, 87(6), 1007-1041.
- Aragón-Mendizábal, E., Delgado-Casas, C., Navarro-Guzmán, J. I., Menacho-Jiménez, I. & Romero-Oliva, M. F. (2016). A comparative study of handwriting and computer typing in note-taking by university students. Comunicar, 24(2). http://dx.doi.org/10.3916/C48-2016-10
- Aunión, J. A. (2020). El profesorado asociado se dispara y la mayoría de las universidades sobrepasa el límite legal de contratos temporales [Associate professorships skyrocket and most universities exceed the legal limit of temporary contracts]. El País. https://bit.ly/36fzVZw
- Ausubel, D. P. (1968). Educational psychology: A cognitive view. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
- Bai, S., Hew, K. F. & Huang, B. (2020). Does gamification improve student learning outcome? Evidence from a meta-analysis and synthesis of qualitative data in educational contexts. Educational Research Review, 30(1), 100322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev. 2020.100322
- Banco Mundial [World Bank] (1995). Prioridades y estrategias para la educación. Examen del Banco Mundial [Priorities and strategies for education. World Bank Review]. Retrieved from https://bit.ly/3p0Ss2h
- Bando, R., Näslund-Hadley, E. & Gertler, P. (2019). Effect of inquiry and problem based pedagogy on learning: evidence from 10 field experiments in four countries (working paper). Retrieved from https://www.nber.org/ system/files/working_papers/w26280/w26280.pdf
- Bell, S. (2010). Project-based learning for the 21st century: Skills for the future. The clearing house, 83(2), 39-43. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 00098650903505415
- Boshuizen, H. P., Gruber, H. & Strasser, J. (2020). Knowledge restructuring through case processing: The key to generalize expertise development theory across domains? Educational Research Review, 29(1), 100310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2020.100310
- Boyack, K. W., Klavans, R. & Börner, K. (2005). Mapping the backbone of science. Scientometrics, 64(1), 351-374. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192- 005-0255-6
- Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L. & Cocking, R. R. (2000). How people learn (Vol. 11). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
- Callaway, E. (2016). Publishing elite turns against impact factor. Nature, 535(7611), 210-211. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature.2016.20224
- Carbonell, J. (2017). Hay vida e innovación más allá del neoliberalismo [There is life and innovation beyond neoliberalism]. Pedagogías del siglo XXI [Pedagogies of the 21st century]. Retrieved from https://bit. ly/3JAH70T
- Carrera, P. & Luque, E. (2016). Nos quieren más tontos [They want us dumber]. El Viejo Topo.
- Chen, O., Castro-Alonso, J. C., Paas, F. & Sweller, J. (2018). Extending cognitive load theory to incorporate working memory resource depletion: Evidence from the spacing effect. Educational Psychology Review, 30, 483-501. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-017-9426-2
- Chen, O., Kalyuga, S. & Sweller, J. (2017). The expertise reversal effect is a variant of the more general element interactivity effect. Educational Psychology Review, 29, 393-405. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-016- 9359-1
- Chen, C. H. & Yang, Y. C. (2019). Revisiting the effects of project-based learning on students’ academic achievement: A meta-analysis investigating moderators. Educational Research Review, 26(1), 71-81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2018.11.001
- Chernikova, O., Heitzmann, N., Stadler, M., Holzberger, D., Seidel, T. & Fischer, F. (2020). Simulation-based learning in higher education: a meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 90(4), 499-541. https:// doi.org/10.3102/0034654320933544
- Clark, R., Nguyen, F. & Sweller, J. (2006). Efficiency in Learning: Evidencebased Guidelines to Manage Cognitive Load. Pfeiffer: San Francisco, CA.
- Clark, R. E., Kirschner, P. A. & Sweller, J. (2012). Putting students on the path to learning: the case for fully guided instruction. The American Educator, 36, 6-11.
- Cowan, N. (2001). The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 24, 87-114.
- Cranney, J. & Dunn, D. S. (2011). Psychological literacy and the psychologically literate citizen: New frontiers for a global discipline. In J. Cranney & D. Dunn (Eds), The psychologically literate citizen: Foundations and global perspectives (pp. 3-12). Oxford Scholarship Online https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199794942.003.0014
- Crozier, M. J., Huntington, S. P. & Watanuki, J. (1975). The Crisis of Democracy. Report on the Governability of Democracies to the Trilateral Commission. New York University Press. Retrieved from https://bit.ly/3JxGt46
- Delgado, P., Vargas, C., Ackerman, R. & Salmerón, L. (2018). Don't throw away your printed books: A meta-analysis on the effects of reading media on comprehension. Educational Research Review, 25, 23-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2018.09.003
- Delors, J. (1996). Learning: The Treasure within. Report to UNESCO of the International Commission on Education for the twenty-first-Century, UNESCO.
- Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135-168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750
- Dochy, F., Segers, M., Bossche, P. van den & Gijbels, D. (2003). Effects of problem-based learning: A meta-analysis. Learning and Instruction, 13(5), 533-568. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-4752(02)00025-7
- Dolgon, C. (2017). Kill it to save it: An autopsy of capitalism’s triumph over democracy. Policy Press.
- Duffy, T. M. & Jonassen, D. H. (2013). Constructivism and the Technology of Instruction: A Conversation. Routledge.
- Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J. & Willingham, D. T. (2012). Improving students’ learning with effective learning techniques: promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4-58. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100612453266
- Echegaray, J. G. (2018). La sobrecualificación laboral, un problema para trabajadores y empresas [Labor overqualification, a problem for workers and companies]. Libre Mercado. Retrieved from https://bit. ly/3uYP0ce
- Editorial (2019). The importance of no evidence. Nature Human Behavior, 3(1), 197. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-019-0569-7
- Eun, B. (2019). The zone of proximal development as an overarching concept: A framework for synthesizing Vygotsky’s theories. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 51(1), 18-30. https://doi.org/10.1080/0013185 7.2017.1421941
- Fellnhofer, K. (2019). Toward a taxonomy of entrepreneurship education research literature: A bibliometric mapping and visualization. Educational Research Review, 27(1), 28-55. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. EDUREV.2018.10.002
- Fernández-Liria, C., García Fernández, O. & Galindo Ferrández, E. (2017). Escuela o Barbarie [School or barbarity]. Ediciones Akal.
- Ferreiro, X. (2010). Mercantilización y precarización del conocimiento. El proceso de Bolonia [Commercialization and the precariousness of knowledge. The Bologna process]. In Xulio Ferreiro. La universidad en conflicto. Capturas y fugas en el mercado global del saber [The university in conflict. Captures and leaks in the global market of knowledge], pp. 113.
- Finkel, D. (2008). Dar clase con la boca cerrada [Teaching with your mouth shut]. Universitat de Valencia.
- Galcerán, M. (2010). La mercantilización de la universidad [The commodification of the university]. Revista Electrónica Interuniversitaria de Formación del Profesorado, 13(2), 89-106. Retrieved from https:// bit.ly/3v2fv0s
- García, C. (2020). Los cambios en la LOU aumentan la precarización en la universidad [The changes in the LOU increase the precariousness in the university]. elEconomista.es. https://bit.ly/3LImWzZ
- Garnett, S. (2020). Cognitive load theory: A handbook for teachers. Crown House Publishing.
- Garzón, J., Baldiris, S., Gutiérrez, J. & Pavón, J. (2020). How do pedagogical approaches affect the impact of augmented reality on education? A metaanalysis and research synthesis. Educational Research Review, 31, 100334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2020.100334
- Garzón, J. & Acevedo, J. (2019). Meta-analysis of the impact of Augmented Reality on students’ learning gains. Educational Research Review, 27(1), 244-260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2019.04.001
- Geary, D. (2008). An evolutionarily informed education science. Educational Psychologist, 43, 179-195.
- Gonsálvez, P. (2014). Enseñar a enseñar [Teaching how to teach]. El País. Retrieved from https://bit.ly/3v1qdV5
- Gordillo, V. P. (2020). La dictadura del coaching: Manifiesto por una educación del yo al nosotros [The dictatorship of coaching: Manifesto for an education from the I to the we]. Akal.
- Grieken, R. van (2014). La innovación educativa en las universidades españolas [Educational innovation in Spanish universities]. Retrieved from https://bit.ly/34SRjD9
- Groot, A. de (1965). Thought and choice in chess. Mouton. Guides, S. (2010). Ghostwriters in the Medical Literature. Retrieved from https://bit.ly/3p6U6PQ
- Hermann, G. (1969). Learning by discovery: A critical review of studies. Journal of Experimental Education, 38(1), 58-72. https://doi.org/10.10 80/00220973.1969.11011167
- Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2004). Problem-Based Learning: What and How Do Students Learn? Educational Psychology Review, 16(3), 235-266.
- Huguet, G. M. (2013). Entre la academia y el mercado. Las Universidades en el contexto del capitalismo basado en el conocimiento [Between academia and the market. Universities in the context of knowledge-based capitalism]. Athenea Digital: Revista de Pensamiento e Investigación Social, 13(1), 155-167. https://doi.org/10.5565/rev/athenead/v13n1.1038
- Indocentia (2016). Disciplinar la investigación, devaluar la docencia: cuando la Universidad se convierte en una empresa [Disciplining research, devaluing teaching: when the University becomes a business]. elDiario.es. Retrieved from https://bit.ly/3Ctg3An
- IvanoviÄ, L. & Ho, Y. S. (2019). Highly cited articles in the Education and Educational Research category in the Social Science Citation Index: A bibliometric analysis. Educational Review, 71(3), 277-286. https://doi. org/10.1080/00131911.2017.1415297
- Iyengar, S. & Massey, D. S. (2018). Scientific communication in a post-truth society. Proceedings in National Academy of Sciences, 116(16), 7656- 7661. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1805868115
- Jansen, R. S., Leeuwen, A. van, Janssen, J., Jak, S. & Kester, L. (2019). Self-regulated learning partially mediates the effect of self-regulated learning interventions on achievement in higher education: A metaanalysis. Educational Research Review, 28, 100292. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.edurev.2019.100292
- Jeong, Y. J. & Gweon, G. (2021). Advantages of print reading over screen reading: A comparison of visual patterns, reading performance, and reading attitudes across paper, computers, and tablets. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 37(17), 1674-1684.
- Jerrim, J., Oliver, M. & Sims, S. (2019). The relationship between inquirybased teaching and students’ achievement. New evidence from a longitudinal PISA study in England. Learning and Instruction, 61, 35-44.
- Kilpatrick, W. H. (1918). The project method: The use of the purposeful act in the educative process. Kessinger Publishing. Retrieved from: https:// bit.ly/3H51npA
- Kincade, L., Cook, C. & Goerdt, A. (2020). Meta-analysis and common practice elements of universal approaches to improving student-teacher relationships. Review of Educational Research, 90(5), 710-748. https:// doi.org/10.3102/0034654320946836
- Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J. & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 75-86. https://doi.org/ 10.1207/s15326985ep4102_1
- Klassen, R. M. & Kim, L. E. (2019). Selecting teachers and prospective teachers: A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review, 26, 32-51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2018.12.003
- Laval, C. (2004). La escuela no es una empresa [The school is not a business]. Paidós.
- Lazer, D. M., Baum, M. A., Benkler, Y., Berinsky, A. J., Greenhill, K. M., Menczer, F. & Zittrain, J. L. (2018). The science of fake news. Science, 359(6380), 1094-1096. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aao2998
- Lewandowsky, S. & Oberauer, K. (2016). Motivated rejection of science. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 25(4), 217-222. https:// doi.org/10.1177/0963721416654436
- Li, J., Antonenko, P. D. & Wang, J. (2019). Trends and issues in multimedia learning research in 1996-2016: A bibliometric analysis. Educational Research Review, 28, 100282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2019. 100282
- Linden, S. van der, Maibach, E., Cook, J., Leiserowitz, A. & Lewandowsky, S. (2017). Inoculating against misinformation. Science, 358(6367), 1141-1142. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aar4533
- Lofton, J. (1972). A perspective from the public at large. American Psychologist, 27(5), 364-366. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0033055
- Martínez, M. M. & Tarrès, J. P. (2013). La fábrica de conocimientos: in/ corporación del capitalismo cognitivo en el contexto universitario [The knowledge factory: in/corporation of cognitive capitalism in the university context]. Athenea Digital. Revista de Pensamiento e Investigación Social, 13(1), 139-154. https://doi.org/10.5565/rev/ athenead/v13n1.1031
- Martínez-Gorriarán, C. (2017). Por qué Albert Einstein no podría ser profesor en España [Why Albert Einstein could not be a professor in Spain]. El Asterisco. Retrieved from: https://bit.ly/3s4lIqL
- Mayer, R. E. (2004). Should there be a three-strikes rule against pure discovery learning? The case for guided methods of instruction. The American Psychologist, 59(1), 14-19. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003- 066X.59.1.14
- Mayer, R. E. & Moreno, R. (2003). Nine Ways to Reduce Cognitive Load in Multimedia Learning. Educational Psychologist, 38, 43-52. https:// doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3801_6
- Merkley, E. (2020). Anti-Intellectualism, Populism, and Motivated Resistance to Expert Consensus. Public Opinion Quarterly, 84, 24-48. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfz053
- Merrienboer, J. J. G. van, Kirschner, P. A. & Kester, L. (2003) Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 5-13. https://doi.org/10.1207/ S15326985EP3801_2
- Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 81-97.
- Ministerio de Educación [Ministry of Education] (2011). Estrategia Universidad 2015 [University Strategy 2015]. Contribución de las universidades al progreso socioeconómico español 2010-2015 [Contribution of universities to Spanish socioeconomic progress 2010-2015]. Secretaría General de Universidades [Secretary General of Universities].
- Mishra, S. (2020). Social networks, social capital, social support and academic success in higher education: A systematic review with a special focus on ‘underrepresented’ students. Educational Research Review, 29(1), 100307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2019.100307
- Moradiellos, E. (2003). Primero aprende y solo después enseña [First learn and only then teach]. El País. Retrieved from https://bit.ly/3Bz2E7l
- Morrisson, C. (1996). The Political Feasibility of Adjustment. OECD Library. https://bit.ly/3heILcx
- National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine. (2018). How People Learn II: Learners, Contexts, and Cultures. The National Academies Press.
- Nietzel, M. T. (2019, October 29). New, strong evidence for problem-based learning. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/michaeltnietzel/2019/ 10/29/new-strong-evidence-for-problem-based-learning/?sh= 32fad09a6ab8
- Noll, H. (2019). ¡Es taylorismo, estúpido! Sobre la nueva organización científica de la investigación y la docencia en la Universidad Española [It's Taylorism, stupid! On the new scientific organization of research and teaching in Spanish universities]. Sociología del Trabajo, 95(1), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.5209/stra.66436
- Nuzzo, R. (2015). Fooling ourselves. Nature, 526(7572), 182-185. https:// doi.org/10.1038/526182a
- OCDE (1997). The definition and selection of key competencies. Retrieved from https://bit.ly/3oVMqAc
- Oliver, M., McConney, A. & Woods-McConney, A. (2019). The efficacy of inquiry-based instruction in science: A comparative analysis of six countries using PISA 2015. Research in Science Education, 51, 595-616. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-019-09901-0
- Pérez-Álvarez, M. (2012). La psicología positiva: magia simpática [Positive psychology: Sympathetic magic]. Papeles del psicólogo, 33(3), 183-201.
- Pigott, T. D. & Polanin, J. R. (2020). Methodological guidance paper: high-quality meta-analysis in a systematic review. Review of Educational Research, 90(1), 24-46. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654319877153
- Powell, W. W. & Snellman, K. (2004). The Knowledge Economy. Annual Review of Sociology, 30(1), 199-220. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev. soc.29.010202.100037
- Renkl, A., Hilbert, T. & Schworm, S. (2009). Example-based learning in heuristic domains: A cognitive load theory account. Educational Psychology Review, 21, 67-78.
- Renkl, A. (2014). Toward an instructionally oriented theory of examplebased learning. Cognitive Science, 38, 1-3.
- Rodríguez-Hernandez, C. F., Cascallar, E. & Kyndt, E. (2020). Socioeconomic status and academic performance in higher education: A systematic review. Educational Research Review, 29(1), 100305. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2019.100305
- Rosenshine, B. V. (2012). Principles of instruction: research-based strategies that all teachers should know. The American Educator, 36, 12-19, 39. Recuperado de: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ971753.pdf
- Ruíz, H. (2020). Conoce tu cerebro para aprender a aprender [Know your brain to learn how to learn]. International Science Teaching Foundation.
- Sánchez-Caballero, D. (2020). Precariedad en el campus: 32 de las 48 universidades públicas presenciales tienen más profesores temporales de los que permite la ley [Campus precariousness: 32 of the 48 oncampus public universities have more temporary professors than allowed by law]. elDiario.es. Retrieved from https://bit.ly/33DEFra
- Sandel, M. (2021). Lo que el dinero no puede comprar: Los límites morales del mercado [What money can't buy: The moral limits of the market]. Debate.
- Sanjana, N. E. (2021). Voices of the new generation: open science is good for science (and for you). Nature Reviews, 22(11), 709. https://doi. org/10.1038/s41580-021-00414-1
- Sant, E. (2019). Democratic Education: A Theoretical Review (2006- 2017). Review of Educational Research, 89(5), 655-696. https://doi. org/10.3102/0034654319862493
- Scheufele, D. A. & Krause, N. M. (2019). Science audiences, misinformation, and fake news. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(1), 7662-7669. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1805871115
- Sirin, S. R. (2005). Socioeconomic status and academic achievement: A meta-analytic Review of Research. Review of Educational Research, 75(3), 417-453. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543075003417
- Skowronek, J., Seifert, A. & Lindberg, S. (2023). The mere presence of a smartphone reduces basal attentional performance. Sci Rep, 13, 9363. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-36256-4
- Soderstrom, N. C. & Bjork, R. A. (2015). Learning versus performance: An integrative review. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(2), 176-199.
- Soler, L. M. (2005). Christian Laval: la escuela no es el laboratorio de una empresa [Christian Laval: The school is not the laboratory of a company]. Cuadernos de pedagogía, (346), 44-50.
- Stéphan, V. L., Joaquin, U., Soumyajit, K. & Gwénaël, J. (2019). Measuring Innovation in Education 2019: What Has Changed in the Classroom. Educational Research and Innovation. OECD Publishing. https://doi. org/10.1787/9789264311671-en
- Stglitz, J. E. (2003). Knowledge as a global public good. In I. Paul, I. Grunberg, M. Stern. Global public goods: International cooperation in the 21st century, pp. 308-325.
- Strelan, P., Osborn, A. & Palmer, E. K. (2020). The flipped classroom: A meta-analysis of effects on student performance across disciplines and education levels. Educational Research Review, 30, 100314. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.edurev.2020.100314
- Sweller, J. (2015). An interview with John Sweller. Education, Policy, Management and Quality, 7(3), 127-134. Retrieved from https://oaji.net/ articles/2016/513-1458543950.pdf
- Sweller, J. (2020). Cognitive load theory and instructional technology. Educational Technology Research and Development, 68, 1-16.
- Sweller, J. (2021). Why Inquiry-based approaches harm students’ learning. National Library of Australia. Retrieved from https://www.cis.org.au/ publication/why-inquiry-based-approaches-harm-students-learning/
- Sweller, J., Chandler, P., Tierney, P. & Cooper, M. (1990). Cognitive load as a factor in the structuring of technical material. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 119(2), 176-192.
- Sweller, J., Merriënboer, J. van & Paas, F. (2019). Cognitive architecture and instructional design: 20 years later. Educational Psychology Review, 31, 261-292.
- Sweller, J., Ayres, P. & Kalyuga, S. (2011). Cognitive load theory. Springer.
- Tobias, S. & Duffy, T. M. (Eds.). (2009). Constructivist instruction: Success or failure? Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
- Tressoldi, P. E. (2011). Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence: the case of non-local perception, a classical and bayesian review of evidence. Frontiers in psychology, 2, 117. https://doi.org/10.3389/ fpsyg.2011.00117
- Tricot, A. & Sweller, J. (2014). Domain-specific knowledge and why teaching generic skills does not work. Educational Psychology Review, 26, 265-283.
- UNESCO. (2005). Towards knowledge societies. Retrieved from https://bit. ly/35aRn0Y
- Villarreal, A. (2017). Los nuevos criterios de la ANECA. Estos 23 premios Nobel nunca serían catedráticos [ANECA's new criteria. These 23 Nobel laureates would never be professors]. El Confidencial. Retrieved from: https://bit.ly/3Hc3mbD
- West, J. D. & Bergstrom, C. T. (2021). Misinformation in and about science. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118. https://doi. org/10.1073/pnas.2104068118
- Wilsdon, J., Allen, L., Belfiore, E., Campbell, P., Curry, S., Hill, S. A., Jones, R., Kain, R. J., Kerridge, S., Thelwall, M. A., Tinkler, J., Viney, I., Wouters, P., Hill, J. & Johnson, B. (2015). The Metric Tide. Report of the independent Review of the Role of Metrics in Research Assessment and Management. Higher Education Funding Council for England. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.4929.1363
- Wood, T. & Porter, E. (2019). The elusive backfire effect: Mass attitudes’ steadfast factual adherence. Political Behavior, 41(1), 135-163. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s11109-018-9443-y
- Yilmaz, K. (2008). Constructivism: Its theoretical underpinnings, variations, and implications for classroom instruction. Educational horizons, 86(3), 161-172. Retrieved from https://bit.ly/3h5ClvT
- Yslado-Méndez, R. M., Ramirez Asis, E. H., García-Figueroa, M. E. & Arquero Montaño, J. L. (2021). Clima laboral y burnout en profesores universitarios [Work climate and burnout in university teachers]. Revista Electrónica Interuniversitaria de Formación del Profesorado, 24(3). https://doi.org/10.6018/reifop.476651
- Zainuddin, Z., Chu, S. K., Shujahat, M. & Perera, C. J. (2020). The impact of gamification on learning and instruction: A systematic review of empirical evidence. Educational Research Review, 30, 100326. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2020.100326
- Zhang, L., Kirschner, P. A., Cobern, W. W. & Sweller, J. (2022). There is an evidence crisis in science educational policy. Educational Psychology Review, 34(2), 1157-1176.
- Zimmerman, B. J. (1989). A social cognitive view of self-regulated academic learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81(3), 329-339. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.81.3.329